Definition:
Textual enhancement is an input modification technique in which target linguistic forms in a reading text are visually highlighted — through bolding, italicizing, underlining, capitalization, or color-coding — to make them perceptually salient while the learner reads primarily for meaning. It is a type of implicit form-focused instruction: the learner’s primary task is comprehension, but the visual manipulation is intended to trigger noticing of the target form (consistent with Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis). Textual enhancement is a subtype of input enhancement and is associated with form-focused instruction research exploring whether implicit attention to form is sufficient to trigger acquisition without explicit grammar teaching.
Mechanism
Textual enhancement works by exploiting bottom-up salience in reading:
- Learner reads a text with a communicative purpose (meaning-focused task)
- Visual marking draws attention to a target form (e.g., third-person -s, relative clauses, articles)
- Increased noticing of the form may lead to intake and facilitate acquisition
- The learner remains primarily focused on message content (unlike in explicit grammar instruction)
Comparison with Other Input Modification Types
| Technique | Explicitness | Learner task | Focus |
|---|---|---|---|
| Textual enhancement | Implicit | Reading for meaning | Noticing via visual cues |
| Input flood | Implicit | Reading for meaning | Noticing through high frequency |
| Structured input | Semi-explicit | Responding to input | Form–meaning mapping |
| Explicit instruction | Explicit | Studying rules | Form memorization |
Research Findings
The research on textual enhancement is mixed:
- Enhancement does increase noticing of target forms (measured by metalinguistic reports and eye-tracking)
- Enhancement does not reliably produce acquisition of target grammar forms beyond input-only controls in many studies
- Enhancement may be more effective for less complex, more transparent form–meaning mappings
- Combined with meaning-based tasks and explicit instruction, enhancement effects may be stronger
Key studies: Shook (1994, positive effects), Simard & Wong (2001), and Doughty & Williams (1998) review.
Textual Enhancement as a Low-Cost Classroom Tool
Because textual enhancement only requires typography modifications to existing texts (bolding, italics), it is practically very easy to implement. Teachers can highlight target grammar forms in any reading passage.
History
Textual enhancement was introduced and systematized by Sharwood Smith (1993) within his framework of “input enhancement” — the deliberate manipulation of input to increase the salience of target forms. Research programs through the 1990s–2000s tested it extensively under the form-focused instruction paradigm.
Common Misconceptions
- “Textual enhancement = explicit grammar instruction” — enhancement is an implicit technique; learners are not told a grammar rule; the target form is simply made visually salient
- “Enhancement always works” — research shows inconsistent acquisition outcomes; enhancement increases noticing but that alone does not guarantee acquisition
Criticisms
- Multiple research reviews have found that textual enhancement has limited effects on L2 grammar acquisition; the noticing hypothesis (noticing is necessary and sufficient for acquisition) is contested, and noticing alone may not be sufficient
Social Media Sentiment
Textual enhancement is more discussed in academic applied linguistics than in learner communities; teachers with awareness of form-focused instruction often use highlighting in materials design. Last updated: 2026-04
Practical Application
- Use textual enhancement as a light-touch supplement to explicit grammar instruction — highlight target forms in reading texts students will encounter after explicit grammar explanations
- Combine with follow-up comprehension questions and optional metalinguistic discussion for stronger effects
Related Terms
See Also
Research
- Sharwood Smith, M. (1993). Input enhancement in instructed SLA: Theoretical bases. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15(2), 165–179. — Introduced the concept of input enhancement including textual enhancement.
- Shook, D. J. (1994). FL/L2 reading, grammatical information, and the input-to-intake phenomenon. Applied Language Learning, 5(2), 57–93. — Empirical study showing enhancement effects on noticing of Spanish grammar forms.
- Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (Eds.). (1998). Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press. — Review of textual enhancement within the broader form-focused instruction research program.