Raising (Linguistics) — a syntactic operation where a noun phrase moves from a subordinate clause to a higher clause position — as in ‘She seems to be happy’ where ‘she’ is raised from the complement clause.
Definition
A syntactic operation where a noun phrase moves from a subordinate clause to a higher clause position — as in ‘She seems to be happy’ where ‘she’ is raised from the complement clause.
In Depth
A syntactic operation where a noun phrase moves from a subordinate clause to a higher clause position — as in ‘She seems to be happy’ where ‘she’ is raised from the complement clause.
In-Depth Explanation
Raising (linguistics) is a syntactic phenomenon in which a noun phrase (NP) — specifically a subject or object — moves from an embedded clause into a higher clause, where it appears as the subject or object of a main predicate even though it is semantically the argument of the embedded predicate.
Two main types:
| Type | Example | Structure |
|---|---|---|
| Subject-to-subject raising (SSR) | “John seems to be tired.” | John = subject of seems syntactically; semantically = subject of to be tired |
| Subject-to-object raising (SOR) | “I believe John to be honest.” | John = object of believe syntactically; semantically = subject of to be honest |
The key diagnostic: expletive substitution:
Raising predicates accept expletive subjects (there, it) when the embedded clause allows them — demonstrating that the matrix subject has no independent theta-role:
- “There seems to be a problem.” ✓ (There as raised subject of seems)
- “There intends to be a party.” ✗ (Raising fails; expletive blocked)
This contrasts raising with control predicates, where the matrix subject has an independent theta-role:
- “John wants [PRO to leave].” — John is both the wanter AND the one who leaves (control)
- “John seems [to be happy].” — John is just happy; seems assigns no role to John (raising)
Japanese raising (繰り上げ構文):
Japanese has raising constructions, though they are realised differently. The particle system and SOV order mean the raised element appears pre-verbally. Predicates like ようだ (yōda, “seems”), らしい (rashii, “appears”), とされる (to sareru, “is considered”) participate in raising-like constructions. Japanese also has object experiencer predicates and complex auxiliary chains that raise embedded elements.
Raising vs. control — frequent confusion:
| Feature | Raising (seem, happen, appear) | Control (want, try, promise) |
|---|---|---|
| Matrix subject theta-role | None assigned by matrix V | Assigned (Experiencer/Agent) |
| Expletive subject possible | Yes | No |
| Identity constraint | None required | Co-reference with PRO required |
| Paraphrase possible | “It seems that John is tired” (equivalent) | “It wants that John [to leave]” (anomalous) |
History
Raising was analysed systematically in the transformational generative grammar framework in the 1960s–70s. Rosenbaum (1967) and Postal (1974) developed raising as a movement rule (NP Raising); Chomsky’s Government and Binding theory (1981) incorporated it within the broader framework of A-movement to spec-IP position. Raising has remained a central test case for syntactic theory and is discussed across frameworks including LFG, HPSG, and minimalism.
Common Misconceptions
- “Raising and control are interchangeable terms.” They describe distinct syntactic and semantic relationships. Seem is a raising verb (no theta-role for matrix subject); try is a control verb (matrix subject = controller). This distinction has real consequences for sentence interpretation.
- “Raising is a quirk of English.” Raising is cross-linguistically attested. Japanese, German, Dutch, and many other languages have raising constructions, though realisations differ.
- “This is too formal to matter for language learners.” For advanced learners analysing complex syntax, understanding raising explains why “there seems to be a problem” is grammatical and why certain constructions with want, think, and seem behave as they do.
Social Media Sentiment
Raising appears primarily in formal linguistics discussions and is rarely a topic in mainstream language learning communities. It surfaces in Japanese linguistics courses, JLPT grammar analysis (for advanced grammar points involving auxiliary and aspect chains), and in SLA research comparing L1/L2 syntactic competence in complex clause structures.
Last updated: 2026-04
Practical Application
- Advanced grammar reading: Raising is relevant for learners engaging with formal linguistic descriptions of Japanese grammar, particularly explanations of auxiliary constructions, quotative chains, and embedded clauses.
- Complex sentence comprehension: Recognising that the matrix subject of a raising predicate is semantically the subject of the embedded predicate helps parse sentences like 彼は頭がいいようだ (He seems to be smart) correctly.
- JLPT N2/N1 grammar: Several JLPT N2-N1 grammar points (ようだ, らしい, と思われる, と考えられている) involve raising-like semantics — understanding the embedded-clause relationship aids accurate usage.
Related Terms
See Also
Sources
- Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on Government and Binding. Foris Publications. Standard generative framework treating raising as A-movement to subject position with theta-role analysis.
- Postal, P. (1974). On Raising: One Rule of English Grammar and Its Theoretical Implications. MIT Press. Foundational transformational analysis of subject-to-object raising in English.
- Shibatani, M. (1990). The Languages of Japan. Cambridge University Press. Analysis of Japanese clause structure including raising-like constructions and auxiliary verb combinations.