Definition:
The target language (TL), also referred to as the L2 (second language), is the language that a learner is in the process of acquiring — the destination toward which their developing interlanguage system is progressing. In second language acquisition (SLA) research, “target language” is used to denote the learner’s goal language without implying a specific social context (whether it is learned in the country where it’s spoken or in a foreign-language classroom). The abbreviation L2 is used broadly to mean “any language beyond the first” — including third, fourth, and additional languages.
TL vs. L2 vs. Second Language vs. Foreign Language
These terms overlap substantially but carry distinct emphases:
| Term | Emphasis | Context |
|---|---|---|
| Target language | The learner’s goal language (neutral about context) | Research and pedagogy |
| L2 | Any additional language beyond the L1 (includes L3, L4…) | Academic/research shorthand |
| Second language | A language learned in the environment where it is spoken natively | Sociolinguistic context |
| Foreign language | A language learned in a context where it is not the dominant language | Classroom/formal study context |
Example distinctions:
- A Japanese person learning English in Japan learns a foreign language
- A Japanese immigrant learning English in the US acquires a second language
- For both, English is the target language and the L2
The distinction between second and foreign language contexts matters for acquisition: immersion in an L2 environment provides qualitatively different input quantity and naturalistic interaction that classroom-only foreign language learning cannot replicate.
The TL Norm and Interlanguage
Interlanguage theory (Selinker, 1972) frames learner development as a gradual approximation of the target language system. The learner’s TL is the endpoint of this developmental trajectory — though full native-like attainment is rare for post-critical-period learners, particularly in phonology.
The concept of “target language norms” has been increasingly questioned: which variety of the TL is the target? A Japanese learner of English might target British English, American English, or a World English standard. SLA has increasingly moved toward studying development toward functional communicative competence rather than a particular native speaker norm.
TL Use in the Classroom (Target Language Policy)
Target language use is a central pedagogical question: should language instruction be conducted primarily or entirely in the TL, or should the L1 be permitted as a resource?
Contemporary best practice (informed by SLA research):
- Maximize TL use as much as possible for input exposure and communicative practice
- Use the L1 strategically — for metalinguistic explanations, reducing anxiety, clarifying semantics
- Grade TL input to be comprehensible (i+1) — above learner level but followable
L2 ? Second Language
Research distinguishes L2 acquisition (any additional language) from second language acquisition (learning a language in the country where it’s spoken). In SLA literature, “L2” is almost always a shorthand for “the language being acquired” regardless of whether it is the learner’s second, third, or fifth language. Multilingual acquisition studies examine how L1 and prior L2/L3 experience affects acquisition of a new TL.
History
The “target language” concept became standard in SLA and language pedagogy vocabulary by the 1970s. Early work in contrastive analysis (Lado, 1957) implicitly defined the TL as the reference norm against which learner performance was measured. Interlanguage theory (Selinker, 1972) formalized the learner’s developing system as distinct from both L1 and TL. World Englishes scholarship (Kachru) and communicative competence research subsequently complicated what “the target” should be.
Common Misconceptions
- “L2 always means the second language in a strict sequence” — In SLA research, L2 = any additional language being acquired
- “The target language is always a native speaker variety” — Many learners and educators now target a functional communicative competence in an international variety rather than strict native speaker norms
Criticisms
- The native speaker as the normative target has been critiqued as sociolinguistically and politically problematic (Phillipson, Linguistic Imperialism, 1992)
- Defining the TL norm is particularly complex for World Englishes contexts
Social Media Sentiment
“L2” and “target language” are frequently used on language learning communities and YouTube — particularly in discussions of immersion approaches and whether to use the L1 in study. The Comprehensible Input community often uses “TL” as shorthand. Last updated: 2026-04
Practical Application
- Be explicit about your TL and what standard or variety you’re targeting (Standard Japanese? Kansai dialect?)
- Maximize time spent communicating IN the TL rather than studying ABOUT it
- Distinguish between your TL as a comprehension target vs. production target — passive comprehension typically precedes active production
Related Terms
See Also
Research
- Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. IRAL, 10(3), 209–241. — Defined interlanguage as the learner’s developing TL-approaching system.
- Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification, and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the World. Cambridge University Press. — Argued for multiple World English norms rather than a single native speaker target.