Restructuring

Definition:

Restructuring is the process by which a language learner’s interlanguage (IL) grammar is fundamentally reorganized in response to new target language (TL) data or feedback. Rather than adding a new rule to an existing system, restructuring involves the learner revising the architecture of their current IL grammar — changing underlying representations, revising parameters, or reconfiguring how existing elements relate. Restructuring is a core mechanism of SLA development and explains several otherwise puzzling phenomena, including temporary accuracy decrements (getting worse before getting better) and U-shaped development.

What Restructuring Is

In explicit learning, new information is simply added to existing knowledge. In restructuring, the learner’s existing system is fundamentally revised:

Before restructuring: The learner has a coherent IL system that generates output systematically, even if non-target-like. This system is (from the IL perspective) internally consistent.

During restructuring: New input or input processing reveals that the current system cannot account for TL data. The learner begins revising the system. During this transition, the old system breaks down before the new one is stable — producing increased variability, temporary errors, and sometimes U-shaped development (accurate ? inaccurate ? accurate).

After restructuring: A new, more target-like system is consolidated, typically more productive and accurate than the pre-restructuring IL.

Restructuring vs. Accretion

Following terminology from connectionist and constructivist learning theory, two types of knowledge changes are distinguished:

Accretion: Adding new information within the existing representational framework (e.g., learning a new vocabulary item)
Restructuring: Reorganizing the representational framework itself (e.g., acquiring a new grammatical parameter that reanalyzes previously acquired material)

Restructuring is cognitively costly — it requires the system to destabilize in order to advance. This is why learners sometimes resist restructuring and maintain simpler IL systems even when provided with contrary input; the cognitive investment to restructure may be avoided.

U-Shaped Development

The classic empirical signature of restructuring is U-shaped development:

Early stage: Learner produces correct forms (e.g., “I went”) — these are unanalyzed memorized chunks
Middle stage: Learner induces a productive morphological rule and overapplies it — temporarily producing errors (“I goed”) — the chunk is reanalyzed as a rule-based form
Late stage: Learner acquires the rule’s exception (irregular paradigm) and returns to correct production (“I went”), now productively

Overextension is often the visible surface of an ongoing restructuring process. Teachers and learners who observe U-shaped errors may incorrectly interpret them as regression.

Restructuring and Input

What triggers restructuring? Several factors:

Comprehensible input at i+1 — input that is comprehensible but contains structure slightly beyond the learner’s current IL engages the system and can trigger restructuring
Negative feedback (corrective feedback) — learning that the current IL form is wrong provides the motivation to restructure; recasts and other forms of implicit feedback can trigger it
Noticing — White (1991) showed that some restructuring requires learners to notice the gap between their IL output and TL input; without noticing, learners may not trigger restructuring even with adequate input

Restructuring and Processability Theory

Processability Theory explains why some restructuring cannot occur until the learner has acquired the necessary underlying processing capacities. A learner cannot restructure toward a Stage 5 L2 word order without first passing through Stages 3 and 4 — the processing prerequisites must be in place. This is why developmental sequences are invariant: restructuring can only proceed in the direction the processing architecture allows.

Restructuring and Fossilization

If incoming input consistently fails to trigger restructuring — if the learner’s IL system successfully communicates without TL-like organization — the non-native IL forms may fossilize (Selinker). Fossilization is, in part, the failure of restructuring to occur: the learner’s system stabilizes in a non-target state from which further development does not occur.

History

Restructuring as a distinct learning mechanism was proposed by Rumelhart and Norman (1978) in cognitive psychology and applied to SLA by McLaughlin (1990). White (1991) examined restructuring in the context of parameter resetting in Universal Grammar approaches. Gasser (1990) and Ellis (1994) discussed restructuring in terms of interlanguage reorganization. Connectionist models of restructuring (Elman, Rumelhart) provided computational analogues.

Common Misconceptions

“Increased errors mean the learner is getting worse” — Temporary error increases are often restructuring in progress — a sign of development, not decline
“Restructuring happens gradually and smoothly” — It can be abrupt and destabilizing; sudden discontinuities in learner performance often reflect restructuring events

Criticisms

Restructuring is difficult to observe directly and is often inferred post-hoc from U-shaped performance data; direct evidence for the mechanism is limited
It is not always clear what distinguishes restructuring from incremental parameter adjustment vs. wholesale system reorganization — the concept is under-defined in some treatments

Social Media Sentiment

Language learners often report confusing experiences where they “forgot” something they knew — producing errors they hadn’t made before. This is restructuring in progress. The SLA community is increasingly aware of this and reassures learners it is normal. Last updated: 2026-04

Practical Application

If you notice yourself suddenly making errors you weren’t making before, consider that you may be restructuring — not regressing
Maintain input exposure during unstable periods; restructuring requires data to anchor the new system
Use Sakubo to build stable, high-frequency vocabulary anchors — a stable vocabulary base helps the IL system restructure grammar without being destabilized on all fronts simultaneously

Related Terms

Research

McLaughlin, B. (1990). Restructuring. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 113–128. — Application of cognitive restructuring theory to SLA; defines the mechanism and links it to U-shaped development.
White, L. (1991). Adverb placement in second language acquisition: Some effects of positive and negative evidence in the classroom. Second Language Research, 7(2), 133–161. — Examines restructuring in parameter-resetting terms and the role of noticing.
Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press. — Comprehensive treatment of restructuring in Chapter 10 (interlanguage development).