Definition:
Parameter setting is the process in the Universal Grammar (UG) framework by which language learners acquire language-specific grammatical properties by fixing the values of abstract syntactic parameters based on input from the language they are acquiring. According to this theory (Chomsky, 1981; Hyams, 1986), UG constrains the range of possible grammars to a finite set of parameter-value combinations. Each parameter has a small number of settings (typically binary: + or -), and as learners encounter evidence in the input, they fix the value of each parameter, which simultaneously explains multiple grammatical properties. Pro-drop, head-directionality, and null subject are among the most-studied parameters.
The Principles and Parameters Model
In Chomsky’s Principles and Parameters framework (1981), Universal Grammar consists of:
- Principles: Universal grammatical properties shared by all human languages (e.g., structure dependency, the empty category principle)
- Parameters: Points of grammatical variation — binary switches that can be set to + or – based on input evidence
This architecture solves the Poverty of the Stimulus problem: children cannot possibly hear evidence for every grammatical property directly; parameters allow them to acquire whole clusters of properties from limited evidence.
Classic Parameters
| Parameter | Values | Consequence |
|---|---|---|
| Null Subject (Pro-drop) | +/- | Can sentences omit overt subject pronouns? |
| Head Directionality | Initial/Final | Do heads precede or follow complements? |
| V2 | +/- | Must the finite verb be in 2nd position? (German) |
| Polarity Item | various | Range of negative-polarity item licensing |
| Topic-Prominence | +/- | Is the topic the primary discourse-grammatical unit? |
The “Triggering” of Parameter Values
Parameters are triggered by specific input evidence. For the null subject parameter:
- Evidence that triggers the [+pro-drop] setting: Sentences with no overt subject pronoun (e.g., Spanish come “eats/is eating”)
- Evidence for [-pro-drop]: Pattern of expletive pronoun use (it rains, there is)
The triggering problem asks: how much evidence, and of what type, is needed to set a parameter? This is a major research question in both L1 and L2 acquisition.
Parameter Setting in L2 Acquisition
L2 parameter setting is more complex than L1 due to the initial state problem: L2 learners start with a grammar already set to their L1 parameter values. Key questions in L2 parameter research:
- Can parameters be completely reset to L2 values? (Full Access hypothesis ? yes)
- Are they merely adjusted partially? (Failed Functional Features hypothesis ? some cannot)
- Is access to UG indirect through L1? (Full Transfer/Full Access model)
Research on pro-drop parameter resetting (White, 1985) and head-directionality (Wakabayashi, 1997) in L2 acquisition has dominated SLA generative grammar research.
Modern Perspectives
Post-Minimalism (Chomsky, 1995 onward) moved away from discrete parameters toward the idea that all apparently parametric variation results from lexical properties (morphological features). In this view, there is no separate parameter mechanism — grammar varies because functional categories (v, T, C) carry different features in different languages.
History
The Principles and Parameters framework was introduced by Chomsky (1981) and expanded by Chomsky & Lasnik (1991). The application to L1 acquisition was developed by Hyams (1986) for null subjects. L2 acquisition application began with White (1985) and Clahsen & Muysken (1986). The subsequent debate between the Full Transfer/Full Access model and the Failed Functional Features hypothesis (Hawkins & Chan, 1997) defined much of 1990s–2000s generative SLA.
Common Misconceptions
- “Parameters are like switches in the brain” — Parameters are theoretical constructs describing the distribution of grammatical variation; they are not literally biological switches
- “Once set, parameters can never change” — L2 research shows parameters can be reset in adult L2 acquisition, though it may take considerable time and input
Criticisms
- The Minimalist Program largely dissolves discrete parameters in favor of micro-variation in morphological features; the original P&P theory may be too coarse-grained
- Parameters have been criticized for being unfalsifiable if parameter values cannot be independently identified outside of the variation they are designed to explain
Social Media Sentiment
Parameter setting is primarily an academic concept discussed in linguistics graduate courses and SLA theory discussions; it rarely surfaces in mainstream language learning communities by name, though the ideas underlie many discussions of “why X is hard” for speakers of particular L1s. Last updated: 2026-04
Practical Application
- Understanding parametric theory helps teachers identify where L1-L2 structural differences lie and predict persistent errors
- For curriculum designers: parameter distance between L1 and L2 can guide scope-and-sequence decisions — larger parameter differences may require more explicit instruction
Related Terms
- Universal Grammar
- Pro-Drop
- Head Directionality
- Word Order
- Second Language Acquisition
- Positive Transfer
- Negative Transfer
See Also
Research
- Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on Government and Binding. Foris. — Foundational presentation of Principles and Parameters framework.
- White, L. (1985). The ‘Pro-drop’ parameter in adult second language acquisition. Language Learning, 35(1), 47–62. — First L2 study of parameter setting/resetting.
- Schwartz, B. D., & Sprouse, R. A. (1996). L2 cognitive states and the Full Transfer/Full Access model. Second Language Research, 12(1), 40–72. — Influential model of L2 parameter transfer and resetting.