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Learning Strategies

Definition:

Learning strategies are deliberate, goal-directed mental actions or behaviors that language learners employ to facilitate the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and use of target language (TL) knowledge. The field of strategy research in SLA studies what good language learners do, how strategies can be identified and classified, and whether strategy instruction produces measurable learning gains. Unlike implicit learning (which is unconscious and incidental), learning strategies are largely conscious, intentional, and controllable by the learner.

Foundational Framework: O’Malley and Chamot (1990)

The most widely cited classification distinguishes three main strategy types:

1. Cognitive strategies

Direct manipulation of the learning material:

2. Metacognitive strategies

Planning, monitoring, and evaluating one’s own learning:

  • Setting language learning goals
  • Monitoring comprehension during listening/reading
  • Identifying one’s own knowledge gaps
  • Selecting which strategies to use and when
  • Self-assessment against can-do statements

3. Social/affective strategies

Managing the social and emotional dimensions of learning:

  • Seeking clarification from teachers or native speakers
  • Cooperating with peers in language practice
  • Lowering language anxiety through self-encouragement
  • Seeking immersive input (native media, tandem partners)

Oxford’s SILL

Rebecca Oxford‘s Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (1990) is another influential classification, extending O’Malley and Chamot’s framework to six categories: memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies. It has been used in hundreds of studies to profile learner strategy use across languages and contexts.

The “Good Language Learner” Research

A foundational question in strategy research is: What do successful language learners do that unsuccessful learners don’t? Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) were among the first to study “good language learners” and document their behaviors, including:

  • Willingness to guess intelligently and take risks
  • Active attention to form
  • Willingness to practice extensively
  • Monitoring of their own speech
  • Attention to meaning first, with form as secondary
  • Active creation of opportunities to use the TL

Naiman et al. (1978) published the influential The Good Language Learner study, systematizing these findings.

Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Vocabulary learning strategies are the most strategically manipulable area for most learners:

  • Spaced repetition systems (SRS) — using apps like Anki to schedule reviews at optimal intervals
  • Keyword method — linking new words to phonologically similar L1 words via imagery
  • Contextual inference — guessing word meaning from surrounding text
  • Word association networks — learning vocabulary through semantic clustering

Does Strategy Instruction Work?

Meta-analyses (Plonsky, 2011) suggest that explicit strategy instruction has a positive but modest effect on L2 proficiency compared to control groups. The effect is stronger for specific, teachable strategies (vocabulary learning techniques, reading strategies) than for general metacognitive improvement. Key moderating factors include learner proficiency level, strategy type, and how well-integrated instruction is with regular language learning.

The “Strategy” Construct — Ongoing Debate

Some researchers (Dörnyei and Skehan, 2003; Macaro, 2006) have questioned whether “learning strategies” is a coherent empirical construct, noting:

  • It is difficult to distinguish strategies from implicit learning processes or general L2 proficiency behaviors
  • Learners cannot always accurately introspect about their strategy use
  • The same observable behavior (e.g., taking notes) may reflect very different cognitive processes

Recent work has shifted toward self-regulated learning (SRL) frameworks (Zimmerman) as a broader theoretical home for deliberate learner action.

History

Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) launched strategy research by defining the “good language learner.” Naiman et al. (1978) published a landmark qualitative study. O’Malley and Chamot (1990) provided the foundational cognitive taxonomy; Oxford (1990) developed the SILL and the most widely used classification. Strategy training research expanded in the 1990s–2000s. The 2010s saw increasing critique of the strategy construct and integration with SRL theory.

Common Misconceptions

  • “Using more strategies is always better” — Quality and appropriateness of strategies matters more than quantity
  • “Natural learners don’t use strategies” — Effective naturalistic learners use strategies intensively; they often just don’t label them

Criticisms

  • The strategy construct lacks strong theoretical grounding in contemporary SLA cognitive science
  • Strategy questionnaires (including SILL) are subject to social desirability bias and poor introspective accuracy
  • Studies often cannot isolate strategy instruction effects from general good teaching

Social Media Sentiment

“Language learning tips” content on social media is overwhelmingly about strategies — especially vocabulary strategies, immersion methods, and productivity hacks. The comprehensible input community (YouTube: Matt vs Japan, Refold) advocates strongly for input-heavy strategies over traditional study. Last updated: 2026-04

Practical Application

  • Identify your current strategy portfolio and add tools you’re not using — especially spaced repetition for vocabulary
  • Build a metacognitive habit: regularly review what you’re doing, what’s working, and what isn’t
  • Use Sakubo for systematic vocabulary review with SRS — one of the best-supported vocabulary learning strategies

Related Terms

See Also

Research

  • Rubin, J. (1975). What the “good language learner” can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9(1), 41–51. — Pioneering identification of effective language learner behaviors.
  • O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press. — Foundational cognitive taxonomy of language learning strategies.
  • Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Newbury House. — Full taxonomy and SILL instrument development.
  • Plonsky, L. (2011). The effectiveness of second language strategy instruction: A meta-analysis. Language Learning, 61(4), 993–1038. — Quantitative review of strategy training research.

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