Discourse Markers

Definition:

Discourse markers (also called discourse connectives, pragmatic markers, or conversational operators) are linguistic items — words, phrases, and sometimes prosodic features — that signal relationships between discourse segments and manage the interactional and organizational dimensions of communication. Examples include however, therefore, well, you know, I mean, so, actually, anyway, in other words, and their equivalents in other languages. They do not typically add propositional content to an utterance but instead guide the listener or reader about how to interpret the relationship between what is being said and what has been said before.

What Discourse Markers Do

Schiffrin (1987) — whose Discourse Markers is the foundational treatment — identified multiple functions:

Logical/sequential relations:
therefore, consequently → mark logical consequence
however, nevertheless → mark contrast or concession
furthermore, in addition → mark additive elaboration

Topic management:
anyway, so → return to main topic, closing a digression
incidentally, by the way → introduce a side topic
speaking of → make a topic transition

Interactional / face management:
you know (English) → appeal for shared knowledge, solidarity
I mean → self-repair or clarification signal
well → hesitation marker or preface to dispreferred response

Metacognitive / processing signals:
in other words → signals reformulation or clarification
actually, in fact → signal that what follows may update or correct prior assumption

Discourse Markers in Japanese

Japanese has a rich system of discourse markers, some structurally distinct from English equivalents:

Sentence-initial markers (文頭表現):

でも (demo) — “but / however” — marks contrast; frequent in casual speech
だから (dakara) — “therefore / that’s why” — marks logical consequence
それで (sorede) — “and so / then” — marks sequential continuation
つまり (tsumari) — “in other words / that is to say” — marks paraphrase
ちなみに (chinamini) — “incidentally / by the way” — introduces related aside
まあ (maa) — softens, hedges, indicates approximate evaluation (“well, kind of”)
あのう (ano) — hesitation filler, signals forthcoming speech
そういえば (soieba) — “speaking of which” — topic shift marker

Sentence-final / interactional markers (also functioning as discourse markers):

ね (ne) — seeks shared agreement/confirmation; appeals to common ground
よ (yo) — asserts information the speaker considers important or that the listener may lack
さ (sa) — used in casual speech to manage turn continuation and shared understanding

Backchannel markers (あいづち — aizuchi):

While technically different from discourse markers proper, Japanese backchannel items (うん、ええ、そう、はい、なるほど、へえ) are discourse-organizing signals from the listener that signal active processing and encourage the speaker to continue. Their frequency and specificity in Japanese distinguishes Japanese conversation style from English significantly.

Why Discourse Markers Matter for L2 Fluency

Acquiring appropriate use of discourse markers is critical for natural-sounding L2 output:

Without discourse markers: Utterances sound choppy, disconnected, or abrupt. Communication succeeds at propositional content but sounds unnatural.
With L1 discourse markers in L2: Learners transfer L1 markers that may not have L2 equivalents, creating strangeness (e.g., using まあ where English well would be expected, without understanding まあ nuance).
With appropriate L2 discourse markers: Speech sounds organized, coherent, and native-like. Discourse markers contribute heavily to perceived fluency even when grammatical accuracy is imperfect.

Research by Müller (2005) and others shows that discourse marker use accounts for a significant and independently varying portion of perceived L2 fluency ratings.

Discourse Markers and Formulaic Language

Many discourse markers are formulaic language — they are stored and retrieved as units, not assembled from grammatical rules. In other words, you know what I mean, at the end of the day (English), and ということは、つまり、それで (Japanese) are retrieved as chunks. This is particularly relevant for acquisition: discourse markers may be most effectively learned as lexical chunks rather than analyzed compositionally.

History

1962: J. L. Austin and J. R. Searle’s speech act theory begins drawing attention to what utterances do rather than what they say — setting the stage for pragmatic marker research.
1987: Deborah Schiffrin publishes Discourse Markers — the foundational textbook; analyzes markers including oh, well, and, but, or, so, because, I mean, you know in natural conversation, categorizing their multi-functional nature in ideational, interactional, and textual dimensions.
1988: Ellen Prince, Judith Hirschberg, and others extend description to logical operators and hedges.
1990s: Cross-linguistic discourse marker research develops; Japanese discourse markers receive systematic description in pragmatics research.
2001: Diane Blakemore’s Relevance and Linguistic Meaning provides a relevance-theoretic account: discourse markers procedurally encode instructions about how to integrate their host utterance with context.
2000s–present: DDL (Data-Driven Learning) research increasingly examines how learners can develop discourse marker knowledge through corpus exposure; learner corpus research documents typical discourse marker errors.

Common Misconceptions

“Discourse markers are just filler words.”

This deeply undersells their function. While they do not add propositional content, discourse markers are doing significant work — guiding interpretation of logical relationships, managing face, signaling attention states, and organizing discourse flow. Their absence makes discourse harder to follow; their misuse signals communicative incompetence.

“The more discourse markers, the more fluent you sound.”

Overuse is as problematic as underuse. In English, excessive you know and like signals cognitive overload or low register. In Japanese, excessive まあ can seem evasive or vague. Appropriate discourse marker use is calibrated by genre and register.

“You can translate discourse markers directly.”

Many discourse markers have no direct equivalents across languages. English well is not equivalent to まあ; I mean is not equivalent to つまり in all contexts. Discourse marker acquisition requires learning L2 markers in their L2 pragmatic contexts, not translating L1 equivalents.

Criticisms

Definition slippage: The category “discourse marker” is defined differently across researchers — Schiffrin, Fraser, and Blakemore have competing definitions that produce different membership decisions for marginal items. This makes cross-study comparison difficult.
Register sensitivity: Discourse markers are highly register-dependent; corpus-based descriptions of spoken discourse markers may not generalize to written language, and vice versa.
Acquisition sequencing unclear: Little research establishes a clear developmental sequence for discourse marker acquisition, making pedagogical intervention difficult to sequence optimally.

Social Media Sentiment

r/LearnJapanese: Discourse marker discussions frequently appear as “how do you use そういえば naturally?” or “what’s the difference between でも and だけど?” These are discourse marker register questions.
YouTube (Japanese conversation tutorials): Content on “natural Japanese filler words,” “aizuchi explained,” and “Japanese conversation flow” is very popular — directly targeting discourse marker acquisition.
Japanese learner journals: Consistent mention of the aizuchi challenge: “I know the grammar but I can’t make my responses feel natural, nobody keeps talking.” Lack of appropriate backchannel is a pure discourse marker acquisition gap.

Last updated: 2026-04

Practical Application

For Japanese learners:

Actively study aizuchi. Work through a list of common Japanese backchannels (うん、ええ、そう、そうそう、はい、なるほど、へえ、ほんと) and practice deploying them while listening. This is a learnable skill that dramatically improves conversational naturalness.
Learn discourse-linking markers as chunks. Add でも、だから、それで、つまり、ちなみに、そういえば to your vocabulary with example sentences that show their discourse context, not just their translation.
Notice discourse markers in input. When watching anime or listening to Japanese podcasts, actively listen for sentence-initial markers and backchannel patterns. Conscious attention to their use accelerates acquisition.
Record yourself in Japanese conversation and review: are you using any sentence-initial markers? Are you using backchannels? How do transitions feel? Compare to native speaker examples.

Related Terms

Research

Schiffrin, D. (1987). Discourse Markers. Cambridge University Press. [Summary: The foundational treatment of discourse markers in natural conversation; analyzes ten English discourse markers across ideational, interactional, and textual discourse planes, establishing the multi-functional framework used in most subsequent discourse marker research.]
Fraser, B. (1999). “What are discourse markers?” Journal of Pragmatics, 31(7), 931–952. [Summary: Provides a competing definition of discourse markers as lexical items that signal the relationship between the speaker’s current utterance and prior discourse; usefully contrasts with Schiffrin’s approach and clarifies definitional boundaries.]
Blakemore, D. (2002). Relevance and Linguistic Meaning: The Semantics and Pragmatics of Discourse Markers. Cambridge University Press. [Summary: Applies relevance theory to discourse markers; argues they encode procedures for processing the host utterance in relation to context rather than concepts — providing the most theoretically developed account of how markers do what they do.]
Müller, S. (2005). Discourse Markers in Native and Non-Native English Discourse. John Benjamins. [Summary: Comparative study of discourse marker use by native speakers and German learners of English; documents systematic differences in frequency, function, and formulaic complexity, and argues discourse marker acquisition is an independent dimension of L2 fluency development.]
Onodera, N. O. (2004). Japanese Discourse Markers: Synchronic and Diachronic Discourse Analysis. John Benjamins. [Summary: The most comprehensive treatment of Japanese discourse markers in the linguistic literature; documents the synchronic functions and diachronic development of Japanese discourse markers including でも、だから、つまり, and connective markers — essential reference for Japanese learners studying natural discourse.]