Definition:
A control structure (or control construction) is a syntactic pattern in which the understood subject of an infinitival or non-finite embedded clause is not overtly expressed but is determined by an argument in the main clause. In “She tried to leave,” the subject of “leave” is understood to be “she” — this silent, controlled element is called PRO in generative syntax.
In-Depth Explanation
Control structures involve two clauses where the embedded clause has no visible subject:
Subject control (main clause subject = embedded subject):
- “She tried [PRO to leave].” — PRO = she
- “John promised Mary [PRO to help].” — PRO = John (the promiser)
Object control (main clause object = embedded subject):
- “She persuaded him [PRO to leave].” — PRO = him
- “She told Mary [PRO to help].” — PRO = Mary (the person told)
The verb determines whether subject or object control applies — this is a lexical property of the verb:
- Subject control verbs: try, want, hope, promise, decide
- Object control verbs: persuade, tell, force, ask, order
Control structures contrast with raising structures:
- Control: “John tried to leave.” (John is both the trier and the leaver — two semantic roles)
- Raising: “John seems to be happy.” (John doesn’t “do” any seeming — just one semantic role, raised from the lower clause)
Control in Japanese:
Japanese handles the equivalent constructions differently because Japanese uses fully finite verbs rather than infinitivals. The controlled subject is simply omitted (pro-drop):
- 彼女は[出かけ]ようとした。(She tried to go out.) — The subject of 出かける is understood as 彼女.
- 彼は彼女に[手伝う]ように頼んだ。(He asked her to help.) — Object control: the helper is 彼女.
Japanese relies on context, particles, and pragmatic inference rather than the syntactic PRO mechanism that English requires. This makes Japanese control constructions less syntactically rigid but potentially more ambiguous.
Related Terms
See Also
Research
- Landau, I. (2013). Control in Generative Grammar: A Research Companion. Cambridge University Press. — Comprehensive survey of control theory from Government and Binding through Minimalism.
- Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on Government and Binding. Foris Publications. — Introduced PRO and the formal theory of control.